Body: | Kadesh Barnea
(Ain el-Qudeirat)
A fortress from the time of the Judaean Kingdom
Rudolph Cohen
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem 1983 AD
The Site
Biblical Tradition
Kadesh-barnea's importance in the history of the Jewish people derives
primarily from its biblical association with Israel's sojourn in the
desert. As a consequence, numerous scholars of past generations have
attempted to equate biblical Kadesh-barnea with sites in Sinai, the Negev,
or even more distant places. Early in this century, a general scholarly
consensus emerged, identifying Kadesh-barnea with Tell el-Qudeirat, located
in the fertile valley watered by the spring of 'Ain el-Qudeirat.
In the Bible, Kadesh-barnea, also known as Enmishpat, "The Spring of
Judgement" (Gen. 14:7), served as a nomadic and semi-nomadic judicial and
cultic centre for the confederation of tribes which wandered in the Negev
and Sinai. This can be inferred from the account of the war between the
four kings of Aram-naharaim and the five kings of the Jordan Plain (Gen.
14:1-11). Abraham's role in this episode, as well as the description of his
dwelling in the Negev "between Kadesh and Shur" (Gen. 20:1) connects
Kadesh-barnea with the Patriarchal Age.
Most of the references to Kadesh-barnea, however, are connected with the
period of the Israelites' sojourn in the desert, attesting to its important
position in the biblical tradition of the Exodus. The Israelites remained
at Kadesh-barnea and in its immediate vicinity for "many days" (Deut.
1:46), and this was the first national-religious centre around which the
Israelite tribes under Moses coalesced. It was from Kadesh that Moses sent
twelve men to spy out the land (Num. 13:26), and messengers to the king of
Edom to request passage through his territory (Num. 20:14).
The abundance of water at the Kadesh-barnea oasis is connected with a
miracle performed by Moses (Num. 20:11), and the episode preceding this
miracle gave the site the name, "the Waters of Meribah (strife)" (Num.
20:13, 24; Deut. 33:8; Ps. 81:8; 106:32), or "the Waters of Meribath
Meribath-kadesh" (Num. 27:14; Deut. 32:51; Ez. 47:19; 48:28). Moses'
sister, Miriam, died and was buried at Kadesh (Num. 20:1). Aaron died at
Mount Hor, located in the vicinity of Kadesh (Num. 20:22).
Kadesh-barnea's location, to the south of the Land of Israel, can be
inferred from the description of the southern border of Canaan, i.e., the
Promised Land of the Israelites (Num. 14:4; Ez. 47:19; 48:28), as well as
from that of the southern border of the territory of Judah (Josh. 15:3).
Kadesh-barnea was situated in the Wilderness of Zin (Num. 20:1; 27:14;
33:36), although it is also associated with the Wilderness of Paran (Num.
13:26) and defined as a city on the border of Edom (Num. 20:16). The
sanctity of the site seems to derive, at least partially, from its
geographic proximity to Mount Sinai and Mount Horeb. According to Deut.
1:2, Kadesh is located eleven days from Horeb by way of Mount Seir.
Another biblical tradition (Deut. 1:19) records that the way from Horeb to
Kadesh-barnea "went through all that great and dreadful wilderness which
you saw, on the way to the hill-country of the Amorites".
The Identification of Kadesh-barnea
The pioneering explorers of the early 19th century sought Kadesh-barnea in
the Aravah. In 1836, for example, von Raumer proposed 'Ain Hosb (Haseva) as
a candidate for the site, while Robinson, in 1838, preferred 'Ain el-Webeh
(`En Yahav). In 1881, however, Trumbull advocated the identification of
Kadesh-barnea with 'Ain Qedeis in northern Sinai, basing himself on the
similarity between the Arabic name qedeis and the biblical "Kadesh". In
1905, Schmidt suggested an identification of Kadesh-barnea with 'Ain
el-Qudeirat. He was apparently the first to have noticed the tell in the
vicinity of the spring. A similar suggestion was advanced by Kuhtreiber.
Today, most scholars accept the identification of Kadesh-barnea with Tel
el-Qudeirat, especially since Woolley and Lawrence discovered at the site
the remains of a rectangular fortress with eight projecting towers, which
they dated to the period of the kings of Judah and Israel. Numerous
scholars have subsequently visited the site, and contributed to the proper
recognition of its historical importance. Particularly noteworthy in this
regard are Glueck (1934), de Vaux (1937), and Aharoni (1956).
Excavations at Tell Kadesh-barnea
In 1956, Dothan conducted excavations at the site, and was able to clarify
many details connected with the ground plan of the fortress. Dothan
ascribed its construction to the 8th-7th centuries B.C.E. (during the reign
of Jehoshaphat), and its destruction to about the same time as that of the
First Temple (586 B.C.E.). He also distinguished a phase, preceding the
erection of the fortress, which he associated with the so-called "Negebite"
pottery - crude, handmade vessels characteristic of the central Negev. A
settlement phase could also be observed following the destruction of the
fortress, which continued through the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. This phase
yielded pottery characteristic of the Persian period and imported Greek
vessels. Between 1976-1982, the author carried out ten seasons of
excavations at Kadesh-barnea. These excavations revealed that the site
consisted of three superimposed fortresses, each one built over the remains
of its predecessor, covering a time span from the 10th century B.C.E. to
the destruction of the First Temple. The site was occupied by an unwalled
settlement during the Persian period following the destruction of the last
fortress (5th-4th centuries B.C.E.).
The Early Fortress
The earliest remains at Tell Kadesh-barnea comprise a fortress and
settlement erected in the late 10th century B.C.E., on a low hill adjacent
to the northern bank of Wadi el-`Ain. The remains of this phase were
discovered some 5 meters below the surface of the mound.
The first, though fragmentary, indications that such a phase existed
appeared already in 1976, the first season, in the southeastern section of
the tell. During the following years, additional sections of the fortress
were cleared, and it became evident that its walls on the east side
projected beyond the ramparts of the later structures. After several
seasons, its ground plan and character became clear, and it could
definitely be established that the earliest fortress was oval in ground
plan, and smaller in area than the later, overlying fortresses, with a
diameter of merely 27 m. It also became clear that the contemporary remains
to the west of the fortress consisted of a number of buildings and silos. A
structure uncovered in the northwestern corner of the site comprised a
number of chambers, including a rectangular room (ca. 6 x 4 m.) with a
stone bench running along its walls.
On the ash-covered floors of the casemate rooms was a rich assemblage of
pottery which could be classified into two types: one consisted of
wheelmade vessels, including large storage jars (pithoi), regular storage
jars, juglets, flasks, oil-lamps, and bowls, all characteristic of the 10th
century B.C.E. throughout the Land of Israel. The other type is crude and
handmade. Vessels of the latter type included kraters, cooking-pots, large
and small bowls, chalices, goblets, oil-lamps, baking trays, and juglets.
Among the other finds were two "Horus' Eye" amulets and the fragment of a
faience statuette.
The early fortress at Kadesh-barnea is similar in its oval ground plan to
that at 'Ain Qedeis and to the other Israelite fortresses in the Central
Negev such as Atar Haro'a, Horvat Haluqim, Nahal Horsha, and Nahal Sirpad.
The Kadesh-barnea fortress, like the others, appears to have been erected
during Solomon's reign in the context of his building projects, and served
to fortify the southern frontier of his kingdom. Several years ago, the
author noted the striking similarity between the fortress line in the
Central Negev and the southern border of the territories of Judah, as
delineated in Josh. 15:1-4. The fortress of Kadesh-barnea was apparently
destroyed in the course of Pharaoh Shishak's campaign into Palestine.
(About 925 BC: 2 Chron 11:5-10; 12:2-9; 1 Kings 11:40)
The Middle Fortress
After the destruction of the earliest fortress (About 925 BC), the site
seems to have been abandoned for some time. However, unlike numerous other
Central Negev strongholds, which were not rebuilt, at Kadesh-barnea a new
fortress was erected over the ruins of the old, and it is this that makes
the site unique.
The middle fortress had a completely different ground plan: it was
rectangular (ca. 60x40 m.), with broad solid walls (ca. 4 m.), preserved to
the height of about 1.80 m., and eight projecting towers. The fortress was
entirely surrounded by an earthen glagis that rested against a buttress
wall, built to the height of ca. 2.50 m. This buttress wall was completely
exposed along the east side of the fortress, as well as to a great extent
along the north and south sides. Small sections were also cleared along the
west side. In the final season it was discovered that the fortress was also
protected by a moat, ca. 4 m. wide and ca. 2.50 m. deep. Sections of this
moat were cleared along the north, east and west sides of the fortress, but
not along the south side, where a moat was considered unnecessary owing to
the protection of the wadi.
The interior structures of the middle fortress were almost completely
exposed. Three occupational phases could be distinguished. In the principal
phase, a street (ca. 3.50 m. wide) divided the space enclosed by the
fortress walls into two structural halves. The northern half contained the
remains of five building units, separated by narrow passageways (ca. 1.50
m.). These units were some 10 m. long, and their walls were constructed of
mud-brick or stone foundations. Particularly noteworthy were two adjacent
units in the northwestern corner of the fortress (10 x 7 m, each),
comprising five oblong rooms (ca. 4 x 2.50 m.), as well as mud-brick
installations with traces of fire in their vicinity. The finds on the
floors of these two building units included, in addition to wheelmade
pottery, "Negebite" ware, such as small knob-decorated bowls, a goblet,
oil-lamps and juglets. Numerous animal bones were also uncovered. South of
these units a water-supply system was cleared, including a cistern, ca. 10
m. across, constructed of large stones, and plastered in the lower part.
The descent to the bottom was facilitated by 25 steps. The cistern's
capacity was about 180 cubic meters. A plastered conduit, running
underneath the rampart walls, directed the spring water from outside the
fortress into the cistern. Some 5 m. east of the cistern, Inside the
fortress, a rectangular room (ca.5.50 x 3.80 m.), was uncovered, whose
walls were preserved to a height of 2.80 m. The floor of this room was
paved with large stones, and it appears to have served as a silo. Nearby
was a circular silo ca. 2 m. across. Four granaries were discovered outside
the fortress walls on the north side, between the central and northeastern
towers. The largest was ca. 1.80 m. in diameter. They were built of large,
undressed stones and small pebbles. To the west of the granaries was a room
(4 x 3 m.) attached to the fortress walls. Set into the floor of this room
was an oven containing a complete hand-made cooking-pot.
Wheelmade pottery characteristic of the 8th-7th centuries B.C.E. was found
on the floors of the rooms of the middle fortress along with numerous
"Negebite" vessels, including kraters, cooking-pots, knob-decorated bowls,
and bowls with bar-handles.
The middle fortress at Kadesh-barnea may have been erected during Uzziah's
reign in the course of the 8th century B.C.E. The three occupational phases
indicate that the fortress continued to exist for a considerable time. The
final phase of the fortress may have been destroyed towards the end of the
reign of Manasseh of Judah, about the mid-7th century B.C.E.
The Upper Fortress
The last fortress at Kadesh-barnea was erected a short time after the
destruction of its predecessor. The ground plan is almost identical to that
of the middle fortress, but now casemate walls replaced the thick, massive
walls. There were apparently some twenty casemate rooms, all of which were
cleared, except for two or three in the southeast which were completely
eroded. The earthen glagis of the middle fortress was strengthened and
adapted to the new walls, and the moat seems to have been used again.
Inside the fortress, the layout changed completely. In the northwestern
part, a building was exposed (25 x 10 m.) containing three oblong rooms
con-nected by a stone-paved hall (15 x 10 m.). At the western end of the
pavement was a round mud-brick structure, 1.90 m. in diameter, preserved to
the height of ca. 1,20 m. It contained a thick layer of ashes, and next to
it numerous pottery vessels were uncovered, including a small incense
burner, and animal bones. Adjacent to this was an additional brick
installation which also contained a thick layer of ashes.
The water-system of the previous phase continued in use, and descent into
the cistern was evidently adapted to the living level of the inhabitants of
the upper fortress by the addition of several steps.
Numerous sherds belonging to the time of this last fortress were found on
the bottom of the cistern.
East of the water system, a structure consisting of a number of rooms
attached to the southern casemate rooms was excavated. In one of these
rooms an important ostracon was discovered (see below).
Two casemate rooms were particularly rich in finds. One was exposed at the
northern end of the eastern side. Twenty-five complete vessels were
uncovered on the floor in a thick ash layer; they included both wheel-made
and handmade "Negebite" pottery, such as storage jars, cooking pots, bowls,
jugs, juglets, oil lamps and a flask. The head of a horse figurine and an
ostracon were also found. The second casemate room was excavated at the
southern end of the western side. Five complete storage jars were found in
a thick ash layer, leaning against the wall in the north corner of the
room. One of the jars was still full of burnt wheat.
On the ash-covered floors of the other casemates and interior rooms of the
upper fortress a large assemblage of ceramic vessels was uncovered, ogain
belonging to two types: wheel-made pottery characteristic of the 7th-6th
centuries B.C.E., and the handmade "Negebite" pottery.
An Unwalled Settlement from the Persian Period
The third and last fortress to be erected at Kadesh-barnea was apparently
built by Josiah, and was destroyed in a great conflagration at about the
same time as the First Temple - 586 B.C.E.
After the destruction of the upper fortress, an unwalled settlement was
established on the site in the Persian period (5th-4th centuries B.C.E.).
There are indications that some of the casemate rooms of the fortress,
particularly along the east side, served as temporary dwelling quarters. In
the northern part of the site a small room, apparently built by these
settlers, was excavated. There is evidence that a similar room existed in
the southern part of the site. The majority of the finds from this period,
however, come from pits dug into levels of the earlier settlements. These
include storage-jars, juglets, bowls, and imported Greek vessels.
The Handmade Pottery
Together with the wheelmade pottery, crude handmade vessels were found at
Kadesh-barnea in all three fortress levels. This rather coarse ware has
been known for some time. First reported by Lawrence and Woolley in their
exploration of our site, it was subsequently discussed by Glueck (in
connection with his excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh) and Aharoni. The
latter associated it with nomad potters active in the Negev and Aravah who
lacked the knowledge and equipment to produce more finished ware. Glueck
ultimately subscribed to this view, connecting such pottery with the
nomadic and semi-nomadic inhabitants of the region, such as the Kenites,
Rechabites, Calebites, and Yerachmeelites.
The excavations at Kadesh-barnea have contributed considerably to our
understanding of this ware.
The repertory of known types has been greatly enlarged, and the association
of such pottery with all three successive fortress levels, spanning some
five hundred years, has allowed a developmental typology to be drawn up.
The author agrees that this "Negebite" pottery should be connected with the
wandering desert tribes, and would further suggest that it should be
specifically associated with the Kenites, particularly since in the Bible a
close relationship is implied between the Kenites and the Israelites.
The Ostraca
Although the excavations at Kadesh-barnea yielded only a few ostraca, they
are important because they contribute to our understanding of the
inhabitants' identity. No ostraca were found in the earliest fortress,
which is not surprising in view of the fact that very few ostraca from the
10th century B.C.E. are known. Two ostraca were found in the middle
fortress. One is inscribed with the Hebrew word I'dny (to my lord) on the
base of an oil-lamp; this may well be the first element of a composite
name, such as Adonizedek, Adoniyahu or the like. The second bears the last
three letters. of a name ...dmy, inscribed on the rim of a handmade bowl.
The letters are too few to enable us to reconstruct the name.
As we mentioned above, a number of ostraca were recovered from the ruins of
the upper fortress. The most important document comes from one of the rooms
attached to the southern casemate wall. It bears six columns in hieratic
writing, comprising numbers and measurement signs. The numbers are arranged
in a column from one to ten consecutively, then from ten to a hundred (in
units of tens), from one hundred to a thousand (in units of hundreds), and
from one thousand to ten thousand (in units of thousands). The number "ten
thousand" was written with the hieratic digit for 10 followed by the Hebrew
word 'If (thousand) in Hebrew characters. This formula (an exercise?) is
repeated at least twice. The shekel symbol appears next to the figures in
columns 4 and 5, containing numbers 1 through 900 only. On the back of the
ostracon, at the bottom, there are three numbers: four thousand, five
thousand, and six thousand. To the right of these numbers are additional
figures. These possibly comprise the numbers between one hundred and four
hundred, but they are very indistinct, and this is not certain. In the
middle of the ostracon, the number one thousand was deciphered. At the top
appears the number three thousand and next to it a Hebrew word, of which
the first letter, alef, is clear, so that it might also be the word 'Ifm
(thousands).
Another ostracon (15 x 10 cm.), found in the northeastern casemate room,
contains three columns written in Hebrew characters and hieratic numbers.
The third line (the clearest) includes numbers arranged in a column from
100 to 800, each number followed by the Hebrew word gerah - the smallest
known weight measure, amounting to about 0.50 grams. Other ostraca bear
hieratic numbers or fragments thereof, including one ostracon of five
lines, featuring the hieratic numerals from 100 to 500, followed by the
shekel sign.
Two Hebrew ostraca were also found. One (16 x 12 cm.) includes three lines
in black ink, but the characters were so indistinct that its contents could
not be deciphered. The second ostracon (4.50 x 4.50 cm.) bears three
consecutive letters -- ie yin, Pet, tet - and apparently formed part of a
Hebrew alphabet.
Another ostracon featuring the words'skr tb was found in the interior of
the upper fortress; its context, however, is not certain, as it was found
in the vicinity of an ash pit from the Persian period. The word 'skr means
"offering", as in Ps. 72:10: "The kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer
gifts", and in Ezek. 27:15: "They brought you as tribute horns of ivory and
ebony". Accordingly, 'skr tb would mean "good offering".
Another important find was a seal impression yhd, stamped on a jar-handle,
common in the post-exilic period within the borders of the satrapy of
Judah. (Similar impressions have been found in Jerusalem, En-Gedi and
elsewhere, but this is the first time that one has been discovered in a
more southerly area.)
Summary
The importance of Kadesh-barnea and its central role in the region in the
period of the Monarchy are reflected in the archaeological finds. The
excavations attest to settlement continuity from the 10th to the 5-4th
centuries B.C.E.
The earliest remains uncovered in the excavation date to the 10th century
B.C.E., and no artifacts or structures were found which could be assigned
to the time of the Exodus. The earliest fortress and settlement at
Kadesh-barnea formed part of a defensive system established by Solomon for
safeguarding his southern border. As mentioned earlier, the ground plan of
this fortress is similar to that of many other strongholds in the Central
Negev. Hence it appears that Kadesh-barnea belonged at this time to this
geographical-national entity, and accordingly shared the same fate as the
other fortress settlements in the course of Pharaoh Shishak's invasion.
Unlike the other Central Negev sites, however, at Kadesh-barnea, a new
fortress was established following a period of abandonment of undetermined
length. This middle fortress had a completely different groundplan. Its
construction, which may be ascribed to the Judean King Uzziah, was
impressive both for its size and solidity, as seen in the powerful rampart
walls, towers, earthen glagis, and protective moat. This was clearly a
royal building project, and as such has no parallel anywhere in the Central
Negev or northern Sinai. What was the reason for erecting such an imposing
fortress in this remote area? The explanation must be connected with the
resurgence of the kingdom of Judah, and the attempt to push back the
Philistines and their descendants from the area of Nahal Besor and the
coast. That time the geographic-national line clearly followed the Nahal
Besor and the Beersheba region, since the Central Negev was not settled.
Other reasons, not clearly traceable today, may have also contributed to
the choice of the site. There may have been a revival of interest in the
origin of the nation and the sojourn of Israelites in the Kadesh-barnea
region after the flight from Egypt.
The middle fortress existed for a considerable time, but despite its
impressive fortifications, it evidently fell victim to an attack by some
enemy whose identity is unknown. The possibility cannot be excluded that
the destruction of the fortress may have been wrought, not by Egyptian or
Assyrian forces, but by desert raiders.
The last fortress, whose construction is attributed to Josiah, was
destroyed in a great conflagration, which left its traces in all the
casemate and interior rooms. It seems reasonable to associate its
destruction with the same political factors that brought about the downfall
of Jerusalem and numerous other Judean cities in 586 B.C.E.
Settlement at Kadesh-barnea continued in the post-exilic period with the
establishment of an unfortified village on the site. There is evidence of
similar settlement, though on a very restricted scale, elsewhere in the
Central Negev (e.g., Horvat Ritma). In Beersheba and Nahal Besor region
there is ample proof of resettlement -between ancient Arad and Tell el
Far'ah in Nahal Besor, even though the character of this settlement is
difficult to define. It would seem that the Kadesh-barnea settlers were
somehow connected with the Jewish presence in the satrapy of Yehud, as
perhaps is indicated by the seal impression (yhd) recovered in the
excavations. It is probable that the biblical "Way of the Spies", along
which many of the Israelite fortresses in the Central Negev were located in
the 10th century B.C.E., was in use in this period as well.
Archaeological surveys conducted in the area of Kadesh-barnea point to
extensive settlement in the periods preceding the First Temple. Numerous
settlement remains from the Early Bronze II and Middle Bronze I have been
discovered between 'Ain Qedeis and 'Ain el-Qudeirat. None of the surveys,
however, have recorded remains from the Late Bronze Age.
The surveys also revealed an interesting settlement picture in the Nabatean
and Byzantine periods. The dams and aqueducts along Wadi 'Ain el-Qudeirat
attest to its importance in providing the region's inhabitants with their
agricultural livelihood.
Photos appearing in Hebrew section:
"Negebite" pottery incense-burners from the middle fortress
"Negebite" pottery altar, from the upper fortress
"Negebite" vessel from the early fortress
Plan of the early fortress
Isometric drawing of the early fortress
Eastern casemate-room of the early fortress
Assemblage of pottery vessels from the.early fortress
Pottery juglets from the early fortress
Plan of the middle fortress 1
Isometric drawing of the middle fortress
Silos, outside the middle fortress walls
Assemblage of pottery vessels from the middle fortress
Water-system
To the right: stone altar. To the left: tripod bowls, "Negebite"
vessel on the right, wheelmade vessel on the left
Plan of the upper fortress
Isometric drawing of the upper fortress
The structure in the north-west part of the upper fortress
Pottery juglets from the upper fortress
The round mud-brick structure
Assemblage of pottery vessels from the upper fortress
Pottery jars, on floor of western casemate-room
"Yhd" seal-impression on jar handle
Lekithos, imported from Greece
Assemblage of pottery vessels from the Persian period
Group of pottery, hand-made, "Negebite", vessels
Tabun with "Negebite" cooking-pot, uncovered in a room outside the
middle fortress wall
Group of "Negebite" pottery vessels
Pottery pendants and lids
"I'dny"
"...dmy"
The letters zayin, het, tet
Ostracon, list of numbers from one to ten thousand
Back side of the ostracon, with list of numbers-
Key to the numbers on the ostracon
List of numbers followed by the weight measure-gerah
List of numbers from one to five hundred
"'skr tb..." ("good offering")
(Rudolph Cohen, Kadesh Barnea: A fortress from the time of the Judaean
Kingdom, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem 1983 AD p7-21)
By Steve Rudd: Contact the author for comments, input or corrections.
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